Sinharaja Forest Trail
Map of Sinharaja Travel
Information
Singharaja Forest Reserve is the most famous rainforest of the country.
This tropical rain forest is a living heritage. Bio diversity of the forest
is very high and a large proportion of the flora in this forest is endemic
to the country and some endemic to the Singharaja Forest itself. This
is a very good place to see many endemic birds such as Ceylon Lorikeet,
Layard's parakeet, Jungle and Spur Fowl, Ceylon Wood Pigeon, Grey Hombill,
Spotted wing Thrush, Rufous and Brown- capped Babbler, Ashy-headed Laughing
Thrush, Ceylon Blue Magpie, White Headed Starling, Ceylon Hill Mynha,
Legge's Flowerpecker. The clear cut roads in to the jungle provide easy
access to the forest. This important forest is a Man and Biosphere Forest
reserve and it is considered as a World Heritage Site.
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IUCN Management
Category
II (National Park), Biosphere Reserve, Natural
World Heritage Site - Criteria ii, iv
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Geographical
Location Situated in the south-west lowland wet zone of Sri Lanka,
within Sabaragamuwa and Southern provinces. It is bounded on the north
by the Napola Dola and Koskulana Ganga, on the south and south-west
by the Maha Dola and Gin Ganga, on the west by the Kalukandawa Ela
and Kudawa Ganga and on the east by an ancient footpath near Beverley
Tea Estate and by the Denuwa Kanda. 6°21'-6°26'N, 80°21'-80°34'E
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Date and History of establishment
Notified a national heritage wilderness area on 21 October 1988 (Gazette
No. 528/14). Most of the area was originally declared a forest reserve
on 3 May 1875 under the Waste Lands Ordinance and notified in the
Ceylon Government Gazette No. 4046, dated 8 May 1875, while the rest
was notified a proposed forest reserve in the early 20th century.
Sinharaja Forest Reserve, comprising the existing and proposed forest
reserves, was declared a biosphere reserve in April 1978, and inscribed
on the World Heritage List in 1988.
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Area
According to Gazette No. 528/14, the total area of the national heritage
wilderness area is 18,899 acres and 12 perches (7,648.2ha). The area
of the biosphere reserve and World Heritage site as cited in the respective
nominations is 8,864ha, of which 6,092ha is forest reserve and 2,772ha
is a proposed forest reserve.
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Land tenure
State
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Altitude
Ranges from 300m to 1,170m (Hinipitigala Peak).
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Physical features
This narrow strip of undulating terrain consists of a series of ridges
and valleys. It is drained by an intricate network of streams, which
flow into the Gin Ganga on the southern boundary and Kalu Ganga, via
the Napola Dola, Koskulana Ganga and Kudawa Ganga, on the northern
boundary. The reserve lies within the transition zone of two important
rock types characteristic of Sri Lanka. The south-western group consists
of metasediments, charnokites and scapolite-bearing calc-granulites,
while the highland group comprises khondalites of metamorphosed sediments
and charnokites (Cooray, 1978). Mostsignificant is the presence of
the Sinharaja Basic Zone, consisting of hornblende, pyriclasts, basic
charnokites, pyroxene amphibolites and scapolite-bearing calc-granulites
and blended with small amounts of quartzites, garnet-biotite gneisses
and intermediate charnokites (Hapuarachi et al., 1964).
This zone coincides with an aeromagnetic anomaly, which has probably
contributed to the desilication process responsible for the gem fields
in the area (Katz, 1972; Munasinghe and Dissanayake, 1980). Soils,
which largely belong to the red-yellow podzolic group, are well-drained
and show very little accumulation of organic matter. This characteristic
is attributed to a combination of favourable climatic conditions,
a diverse soil microflora effecting rapid breakdown of organic matter
into constituent nutrients, and accelerated uptake and recycling of
nutrients by the trees. Clear-felling of the forest, where most of
the nutrients are locked up, therefore renders the soil impoverished
of essential nutrients and incapable of supporting sustained commercial
forestry or agriculture (Forest Department, 1986). Information on
soil profiles and soil microfungi are given in Zoysa and Raheem (1987).
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Climate
Based on meteorological records gathered from in and around Sinharaja
over the last 60 years, annual rainfall has ranged from 3614mm to
5006mm and temperatures from 19°C to 34°C (Zoysa and Raheem, 1987).
Most precipitation emanates from the south-west monsoons during May-July
and the north-east monsoons during November-January. Conditions are
dry in February.
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VegetationTwo
main types of forest can be recognised. Remnants of Dipterocarpus
forest occur in valleys and on their lower slopes, with hora D.
zeylanicus and bu hora D. hispidus present in almost pure
stands. Secondary forest and scrub occur where the original forest
cover has been removed by shifting cultivation and in other places
the forest has been replaced by rubber and tea plantations (Rosayro,
1954). Mesua-Doona (Shorea) forest, the climax vegetation
over most of the reserve, covers the middle and upper slopes above
500m (Rosayro, 1942) or above 335m as suggested by Gunatilleke and
Gunatilleke (1985). Garcinia hermonii followed by Xylopia
championii invariably dominate the understorey tree stratum, a
range of species dominate the subcanopy and na Mesua nagassarium
usually predominates in the canopy layer (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke,
1985). Details about the structure and composition of the vegetation
are summarised by Zoysa and Raheem (1987). Of Sri Lanka's 830 endemic
species, 217 trees and woody climbers are found in the lowland wet
zone (Peeris, 1975). Of these, 139 (64%) have been recorded in Sinharaja
(Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1985), 16 of which are considered to
be rare (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1981). Other rare endemics are
the palm Loxococcus rupicola (R) and Atalantia rotundifolia,
the latter being restricted to Sinhagala at 742m. Of 211 recorded
species of trees and woody climbers, 40% have low population densities
(less than or 10 or fewer individuals per 25ha) and 43% have restricted
distributions, rendering them vulnerable to further encroachments
into the reserve (Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1981). A variety of
plants of known benefit to man are present, of which palm kitul Caryota
urens (for jaggery, a sugar substitute), wewal Calamus
sp. (for cane), cardamom Elattaria ensal (as spice), Shorea
sp. (for flour), dun Shorea sp. (for varnish and incense) and
weniwal Coscinium fenestratum (for medicinal purposes) are
used intensively by villagers. A list of 202 plants, together with
their endemicity and uses is given in the draft conservation plan
(Forest Department, 1985).
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Fauna
An early account of the fauna is given by Baker (1937). Preliminary
lists of the fauna (viz. mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians,
fishes and butterflies) have been compiled (March for Conservation,
1985) and are included in the draft conservation plan (ForestDepartment,
1985). Endemism is high, particularly for birds with 19 (95%) of 20
species endemic to Sri Lanka present. Endemism among mammals and butterflies
is also greater than 50%. Threatened mammals are leopard Panthera
pardus and Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E). The endemic
purple-faced langur Presbytis senex is present. Birds considered
to be endangered or rare (Hoffmann, 1984) are Sri Lanka wood pigeon
Columba torringtoni, green-billed coucal Centropus chlororhynchus,
Sri Lanka white-headed starling Sturnus senex, Sri Lanka blue
magpie Cissa ornata, and ashy-headed babbler Garrulax cinereifrons,
all of which are endemic, and red-faced malkoha Phaenicophaeus
pyrrhocephalus. Of interest is the presence of Sri Lanka broad-billed
roller Eurystomus orientalis irisi (I), sightings of which
have decreased markedly in the last five years (Zoysa and Raheem,
1987). Of the reptiles and amphibia, python Python molurus
is vulnerable and a number of endemic species are likely to be threatened.
Noteworthy species include Calotes liolepis, the rarest of
all Agamids on the island, the rare rough-nose horned lizard Ceratophora
aspera, restricted to part of Sri Lanka's wet zone, and Ramella
palmata, a rare endemic microhylid (Zoysa and Raheem, 1987). Threatened
freshwater fish are combtail Belontia signata (R), smooth-breasted
snakehead Channa orientalis (R), black ruby barb Barbus
nigrofasciatus (V), cherry barb Barbus titeya (V) and
red-tail goby Sicydium halei (V), the conservation status
of which is considered in Evans (1981). Of the 21 species of endemic
butterfly, Sri Lanka rose Atrophaneura jophon is vulnerable
(Collins and Morris, 1985). Sri Lankan five-bar sword Graphium
antiphates ceylonicus, which is considered to be very rare,
is not uncommon in Sinharaja at certain times of the year (J.N. Banks,
pers. comm., 1986). Zoysa and Raheem (1987) comprehensively summarise
what is known about the fauna.
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Cultural Heritage
The Sinharaja region has long featured in the legends and lore of
the people of Sri Lanka. Its name, literally meaning lion (sinha)
king (raja), perhaps refers to the original 'king-sized or royal forest
of the Sinhalese', a people of the legendary 'lion-race' of Sri Lanka
(Hoffmann, 1979), or to the home of a legendary lion of Sri Lanka.
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Local and Human Population
There are two villages within the south-west of the reserve, namely
Warukandeniya and Kolonthotuwa, and about 52 families live in the
north-western sector. At least 20 other settlements occur on the periphery,
an unknown number of which have been illegally established on state
land without approval from the relevant authorities. The total population
is in excess of 5,000 people. Some land adjacent to the reserve is
under private ownership, including small tea and rubber plantations.
The extent to which local people are economically dependent on rain
forest resources is variable but about 8% of households might be completely
dependent (Silva, 1985).
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Visitors and Visitor Facilities
Visitors are low in number and mostly naturalists. Entry is by permit,
obtainable from the Forest Department in Colombo. There are nature
trails to the peaks of Moulawella and Sinhagala. Guidebooks to
the Moulawella Trail and to the secondary vegetation have recently
been prepared (Gunatilleke et al., 1987a, 1987b). Some
accommodation is available with the Forest Department near the reserve
entrance at Kudawa. Further facilities are planned.
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Scientific research an Facilities
Among the earliest studies are those of Baker (1937, 1938). Rosayro
(1954, 1959), Andrews (1961) and Merritt and Ranatunga (1959) assessed
the area's potential for selective logging, based on aerial and ground
surveys. Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke (1980, 1981, 1985) examined the
floristic composition and phytosociology of woody vegetation and assessed
its conservation value. Research on theendemic fauna has been undertaken
by WWF/IUCN (Project 1733) and March for Conservation (Karunaratne
et al., 1981). Conflicts over the local use of forest
resources have been examined by McDermott (1985, 1986) and Silva (1985).
An annotated vegetation/land-use map (1:40,000) of the reserve has
been produced by the Forest Department (n.d.). The Natural Resources
Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka has provided a field research
station in the reserve. The Forest Department building at Kudawa,
outside the reserve, is used by scientists and visitors.
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Covservation
Value
Sinharaja is the last extensive primary lowland tropical rain forest
in Sri Lanka. It holds a large number of endemic species of plants
and animals, and a variety of plants of known benefit to man. Sinharaja
Forest Reserve is the last viable remnant of Sri Lanka's tropical
lowland rain forest; over 60% of the trees are endemic and many of
these are rare; and there are 21 endemic bird species, and a number
of rare insects, reptiles and amphibians (IUCN Technical Evaluation).
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Conservation
Management
Sinharaja is administered by the Forest Department under the Ministry
of Lands and Land Development. Recognising the need for maximum possible
protection, it has recently been declared as a national heritage wilderness
area under the National Heritage Wilderness Areas Act. Any excision
to such an area is permissible only with the concurrence of parliament
and the President of the country. The site is also partially protected
under the provisions of the Forest Ordinance. Sinharaja was first
recognised in 1936 as being "the only considerable patch of virgin
tropical rain-forest in the island" (Baker, 1937). Owing to its
inaccessibility and steep, hilly terrain, the reserve remained untouched
until 1968 when a government directive was issued to extract timber
for the plywood sawmill and chipwood complex established at Kosgama.
From 1971 until 1977, when logging was banned, largely due to public
pressure with the Wildlife and Nature Protection Society playing a
leading role (see Hoffmann, 1972, 1977), about 1,400ha of forest in
the western sector were selectively logged (Gunatilleke, 1978; Forest
Department, 1986). Presently, the reserve has 6,500-7,000ha of unlogged
forest. Since 1977, the Forest Department has given high priority
to protecting the reserve and in 1978 began planting Pinus caribaea
along the periphery to establish a live boundary. More recently, betelnut
palm Areca catechu has been used for this purpose (Zoysa
and Raheem, 1987).
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A conservation plan has been officially approved (Forest
Department, 1986), implementation of which is being carried out under
a cooperative agreement between IUCN and the Sri Lankan government,
with additional funding from the Norwegian government (Hails, 1989).
In order to ensure the strict protection of the reserve for scientific
and aesthetic reasons, a scheme of zonation and management is proposed
for areas outside the reserve. The creation and propagation of essential
forest products, for sustained utilisation, in areas outside the reserve
is intended to meet local needs and thereby eliminate former dependence
on resources within the reserve. Alternative strategies are either
to establish a 3.2km-wide buffer zone round the reserve or to enlarge
the area protected to about 47,380ha, with the reserve forming a strictly
protected core area and surrounding areas set aside as buffers for
various uses. The only resource which may still be legally collected,
under permit, is kitul (McDermott, 1988). The preferred strategy has
been to freeze resource use within the reserve at 1985 levels (when
the conservation plan was prepared) and gradually eliminate futureresource
dependency on the reserve by relocating villages to areas outside
the reserve (Ishwaran and Erdelen, 1990).
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Management Costraints
Of the many constraints to the protection of Sinharaja, socio-economic
ones relating to the people and organisations in the immediate vicinity
of the reserve are perhaps among the most important. Encroaching cultivations
are probably the biggest problem, particularly along the southern
boundary (McDermot, 1985). Contractors open up routes to facilitate
logging operations and, although no felling is permitted within 1.6km
of the reserve boundary, this may render the reserve more accessible
to illicit timber operations. Planting of Honduran mahogany Swietenia
macrophylla along abandoned logging trails as an enrichment species
may lead to displacement of natural species, especially as it is a
prolific seed producer (Zoysa and Raheem, 1987). Alleged malpractices
by the State Timber Corporation are a source of concern for the Forest
Department. Private land owners along the periphery perhaps make illegitimate
use of timber resources within the reserve: having felled all merchantable
timber on their own land, they continue to request permits for timber
(Hathurusinghe, 1985). The most important forest produce is firewood,
significant quantities of which are used in the production of jaggery
(McDermot, 1985; Silva, 1985). The traditional use of minor forest
products, most important of which are kitul for jaggery and wewal
or cane for weaving baskets, is now restricted to forest surrounding
the reserve. Illicit gem mining was considered to be a serious problem
in eastern parts of the reserve. It is organised mostly by wealthy
merchants from outside the Sinharaja region and needs to be stopped.
The lack of a uniform land-use policy and the multiplicity of governmental
and semi-governmental agencies involved in land-use planning in Sri
Lanka are the major administrative constraints in evolving a suitable
protection plan for Sinharaja. For the moment, transactions related
to lands surrounding the reserve are suspended under presidential
order until such time as the conservation plan for the reserve is
ready for implementation (Forest Department, 1986).
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Local Address
Range Forest Officer, Range Forest Office, Kudawa, Weddagala (An assistant
conservator of forests will eventually be responsible for implementing
the conservation plan.)
Trail Map of Sinharaja
Compiled
By L.A.M.C.Amarasekara
Forestry and environment socitey, University of Sri
Jayewardenepura
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Forestry and Environmental Science Society of Univesity of Sri Jayewardenepura,
Nugegoda, Sri Lanka and
Young Biolgists' Association, National Meuseum of the Naural History,
Sir Marcus Fernando Mawatha, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka.
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